https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/ Applied Linguistics Inquiry en daily 1 Tue, 31 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0430 Tue, 31 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0430 https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3916.html Classroom interaction plays a significant role in helping consolidate academic knowledge in the learners. This study examined the interactional resources and moves employed by novice and experienced EFL teachers before, during, and after a teacher education intervention, aiming to understand their classroom interaction management strategies. Utilizing qualitative analysis, the study identified differences and similarities in the use of act selection, repair strategies, turn-taking practices, and boundary as resources and interactional features (moves). Experienced teachers demonstrated a more diverse deployment of interactional resources and moves. However, the novice teachers also showed some improvement in the deployment of interactional resources and moves, indicating the effectiveness of teacher education in enhancing their interactional competence. Conversely, experienced teachers exhibited a substantial number of resources and moves even before the intervention, maintaining a relatively stable performance throughout the study phases. These findings underscore the importance of ongoing teacher education programs to develop novice teachers' interactional skills and enhance their classroom interaction quality. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3990.html This study investigates the quality and quantity of disability representation in two internationally recognized English language textbook series: English File (4th edition) and Speakout (3rd edition). By focusing on internationally marketed ELT textbooks, the research moves beyond previous studies, which were confined to local or national textbooks, thus addressing a notable gap in the literature. Using content analysis, the study examines the frequency of representation, as well as its compliance with the standard guidelines offered by UNESCO (2024) and the United Nations (2022) in equitable portrayal of disability. Disability models (e.g., medical, charity, social, and human rights-based) and intersectionality between disability and other variables such as gender, disability type, and elite status have also been examined. The findings revealed limited representation of disability in both series. However, the majority of instances of representation followed the recommended actions by the guidelines. The results indicated that Speakout featured more explicit representation, stronger reliance on the human rights-based model, and more balanced representation of gender. English File contained more implicit representation, mostly featuring elite male characters. The results of this research contribute to disability studies as well as inclusive pedagogy, offering insights for improvements of language teaching materials and other educational resources. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3917.html Learning language as a social process can be shaped by learners’ imagined communities and imagined identities. This study explores the strategies EFL learners use in navigating the complexities of language learning in a foreign cultural context. The participants were sixteen senior university students (eight from Spain and eight from Iran). The instruments used to collect the data were semi-structured interviews, written narratives, and focus groups. After applying qualitative content analysis, three themes emerged: intercultural negotiation and communicative adaptation; identity construction and transformation; and strategic resource use to build imagined communities and future opportunities. It was found that the participants exercised different strategies to navigate their identity-related challenges. Spanish learners mainly used pragmatic and stylistic adaptations based on cultural interests, whereas Iranian learners engaged in deeper identity construction shaped by professional aspirations. This highlights that language education should be culturally sensitive considering learners’ imagined communities and identities to enhance sociocultural adaptability. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3918.html AbstractAlthough mobile learning offers novel pedagogical opportunities, the development of advanced speaking abilities in German as a Foreign Language remains insufficiently examined, leading to the psycholinguistic fluency-accuracy trade-off being largely overlooked in synchronous environments. This study sought to assess the effectiveness of a unique mobile framework, the Asynchronous-Collaborative Construction Cycle (ACCC Model), in improving B2-level speaking proficiency. This research employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. A cohort of 38 Iranian B2 learners was allocated to either a mobile experimental group (n = 20) utilizing asynchronous WhatsApp or a synchronous face-to-face control group (n = 18). Data were gathered through pretest-posttest Goethe-Certificate B2 oral assessments and a verified learner perception survey. Quantitative data were subjected to ANCOVA and manual Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency (CAF) analysis, whilst qualitative replies were assessed by inductive content analysis. The experimental group markedly surpassed the control group in overall speaking proficiency (p < .001). Importantly, they attained concurrent, substantial improvements in Accuracy and Fluency, although Syntactic Complexity showed no notable intergroup differences. Qualitative data indicated that asynchronicity contributed to this accomplishment by reducing speaking anxiety and allowing for iterative acoustic self-monitoring. Separating language output from immediate demand effectively addresses the fluency-accuracy trade-off, illustrating that including asynchronous mobile practice is a highly scalable and effective educational method for institutional curricula. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3744.html Advances in technology have necessitated a shift from conventional instruction to online instruction. Different online platforms have been developed and several teaching methods have been adapted for online instruction. However, this created both opportunities and challenges. On the one hand, it may have facilitated the teaching and learning process in several ways. On the other hand, it may also have negatively affected the learners’ psychological traits like anxiety and self-efficacy. This study aimed at comparing the potential effects of three online methods of language teaching including ‘Technology-Mediated Task-Based Language Teaching (TMTBLT)’, ‘Problem-Based Instruction Online (PBIO)’, and ‘Online Flipped Learning (OFL)’ on EFL learners' online language learning self-efficacy and online foreign language anxiety (FLA). To this end, 120 male and female intermediate English students were selected and randomly assigned to three experimental groups and one control group, each with 30 students. Each of the experimental groups was instructed for 15 sessions with one of the mentioned online methods, while the control received conventional instruction. The telecollaborative foreign language anxiety scale (T-FLAS) the online learning self-efficacy (OLSE) questionnaires were administered before and after the treatment to measure the anxiety and self-efficacy. The collected data were analyzed using one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results showed that all the three experimental methods were more effective than the control condition in improving the participants’ self-efficacy and reducing their anxiety. In addition, PBIO was significantly more effective than the other two methods in increasing self-efficacy, whereas TMTBLT was more effective than OFL in reducing anxiety. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3911.html This study employed a contrastive corpus-based investigation of the frequency of interactional metadiscourse markers (MDMs) in the Introduction and Discussion sections of Applied Linguistics MA theses written by native English speakers (NS) and Iraqi non-native speakers (NNS). Following Hyland’s (2004) interpersonal model, the study addressed four research questions comparing interactional MDM use between the groups (i.e. NS vs. NNS) and across the two rhetorical sections (i.e. Introduction vs. Discussion). The findings indicated that while NS writers used more MDMs overall, with a higher proportion of hedges and attitude markers, NNS writers used significantly more boosters, representing a more assertive authorial stance in both Introduction and Discussion sections of their MA theses. However, the study further indicated a prominent pattern of rhetorical adaptation. Both groups significantly increased their use of all categories of MDMs from the Introduction to the Discussion. Most importantly, the NNS writers demonstrated a functional shift in strategy, moving from a preference for boosters in their Introductions to hedges in their Discussions, mirroring the NS pattern. This suggests that while baseline rhetorical styles differ, novice NNS writers possess a developing awareness of genre conventions, adapting their stance to meet the distinct persuasive and interpretive demands of the thesis Discussion section. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3915.html Teacher burnout threatens educator well-being and educational quality, particularly within the demanding English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. While personal resources like self-compassion and mindfulness are known protective factors, the psychological mechanisms through which they mitigate burnout remain underexplored. This study investigated the mediating role of emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) in the relationship between these resources and the core dimensions of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment). Using a cross-sectional survey of 315 practicing Iranian EFL instructors, we tested a hypothesized structural equation model (SEM) with formal bootstrapping for mediation. The model demonstrated excellent fit, explaining substantial variance in emotional exhaustion (48%), depersonalization (41%), and personal accomplishment (44%). Results revealed that self-compassion was a potent protective factor against all burnout dimensions, while mindfulness also directly predicted lower exhaustion and higher accomplishment. Critically, mediation analysis confirmed that emotion regulation was a key mechanism; expressive suppression, in particular, emerged as a significant risk pathway linking lower self-compassion to higher burnout. The findings underscore the multifaceted role of self-compassion and have significant implications for teacher training and professional development. They suggest that fostering self-compassion and adaptive emotion regulation skills is a crucial strategy for mitigating burnout in the EFL profession. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3955.html Despite the importance of action research (AR) in second/foreign language (L2) teacher education, the intersection of generational identity and teachers’ beliefs about AR remains underexplored. Thus, this study aims to investigate whether the generation of the teacher has a significant effect on their beliefs about AR. The present study used the Inventory on Teachers' Beliefs about Action Research (ITBAR) to collect data. 240 Iranian EFL teachers out of 424 completed questionnaires were randomly assigned to three equal teacher generation groups (each group consisted of 80 teachers), namely Generation X (ages 45-60), Generation Y (ages 29-44), and Generation Z (ages 13-28). The findings revealed that teachers from Generation Y had the most positive attitude towards AR followed by Generation Z, with Generation X having the least favorable attitudes. These findings support the generational theory which posits that historical, social, and technological experiences common to a given cohort profoundly influence their worldview. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3912.html This study examines the perception of English swearing in speakers of English as a second language (ESL) within two socio-communicative contexts: private speech and interpersonal interactions. Participants included 34 ESL speakers who watched 14 short, muted videos in which subjects experienced an emotion-evoking negative event either in private or in the presence of others. Participants then took the subject’s perspective and produced impromptu responses to the emotion-evoking scenarios. The results indicated that ESL speakers judge more occurrences of English swearwords in interpersonal interactions than in private speech. The swearing patterns were further modulated by the role of gender, whereby ESL speakers attributed a higher frequency of swearing to male subjects in interpersonal communications, while the frequency of swearing did not show a significant difference between male and female subjects in private speech. It is argued that second language swearing functions as a socio-pragmatic device in interpersonal interactions and reflects ESL speakers’ assessment of the second language sociolinguistic norms to achieve social goals. Further, different patterns of swearing in relation to gender are discussed through the lens of stereotyped female speech. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3989.html Whereas the linkage between teaching motivation and job satisfaction has been sufficiently addressed by professional in English language teaching agenda, the moderating effect of income on the relation between these two constructs has been largely ignored in the Iranian context. The present study, following a quantitative research design, mainly aimed to investigate the moderating effect of income on the relationship between subconstructs of teaching motivation (intrinsic, extrinsic, and altruistic) and job satisfaction. A total number of 239 secondary school English teachers participated in the study based on convenience sampling. To gather the relevant data, the related questionnaires were utilized and teachers were categorized into six groups based on their income. The results obtained from one-way MANOVA confirmed that teacher income could moderate the relation between intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction as well as the relation between extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction. However, the findings revealed that teacher income had no moderating role in the relation between altruistic motivation and job satisfaction which, in turn, would provide a deeper understanding of critical pedagogy based on which some individuals use ideology to satisfy their own needs while ignoring social needs and social equity. Policy makers are recommended to consider teachers’ educational and research promotions in paying their salaries because dynamicity in income can foster teachers’ satisfaction and well-being. A further implication of the study is for teacher educators to help pre-service and in-service teachers work on ideational activities in their classes so that they can foster their altruistic motivation. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3610.html This study innovatively reports on the use of a genre teaching course through virtual reality (VR) to enhance the writing proficiency of six Iranian EFL writers. The teaching and learning process was carried out in a cycle included setting the context, modeling, joint construction, independent construction, and comparing the texts. Notably, at the second stage of the cycle, virtual reality was capitalized for the deconstruction of the culture-bound conventions of the genre of information report as the focus of the study. Data were collected through learners’ pre-test and post-test writing samples, semi-structured interviews, and experts’ feedback. A genre analysis framework of the Sydney genre school was applied to examine the macro-level features, while micro-level analysis focused on lexical density and nominalization using principles from systemic functional linguistics (SFL). Findings reveal that VR-enhanced genre pedagogy significantly raised learners’ awareness of macro-structural and micro-linguistic features, yielding more coherent and informationally dense texts. The study demonstrates VR’s potential as a consciousness-raising tool in genre-based EAP instruction, offering practical implications for curriculum designers and educators seeking to integrate technologically enriched, culturally informed writing pedagogy. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3914.html Previous research highlights the importance of motivational climates created by supervisors but lacks a detailed understanding of how these climates influence specific teacher behaviors. This study aims to explore how different motivational climates, as perceived by EFL teachers, affect their emotional exhaustion and engagement in feedback-seeking behaviors. Employing a cross-sectional design, the study involved 549 EFL teachers from various language institutes using three questionnaires, one of which was developed for the purpose of this study. Structural Equation Modeling was utilized to assess the relationships among the constructs. Results demonstrate that mastery climates are positively associated with seeking self-improvement feedback, while performance climates correlate with increased emotional exhaustion and a preference for self-validation feedback. Autonomy-supportive climates significantly reduced emotional exhaustion, whereas autonomy-controlling climates exacerbated it. These findings suggest that supervisor-training programs should focus on developing leadership styles that promote supportive and mastery-oriented climates. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3743.html The purpose of this study is to investigate the identity shift of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Iran during the induction year, focusing on two major recruitment pathways. Farhangian University is a state-run teacher training institution offering a four-year program, while Article 28 is a fast-track Ministry of Education initiative providing short-term training for teachers from varied backgrounds. Employing activity theory as the conceptual framework, this study examines how these pathways influence the shift of teachers' professional identities, the determinants impacting their career trajectories, and the challenges encountered during their initial year of teaching. Through narrative inquiry and semi-structured interviews with three Iranian EFL teachers, it was found that teacher identity is dynamic and influenced by various factors such as previous teaching experience, institutional expectations, and socio-cultural issues. The findings indicated that the teacher trained at Farhangian University benefited from structured pedagogical preparation, while Article 28 teachers often experienced sudden identity changes due to insufficient pre-service training. The study also emphasizes the need for teacher education programs to balance theoretical knowledge with practical teaching experience, provide stronger institutional support, and encourage professional collaboration. Along with some recommendations for further research, the implications for L2 teacher education programs, EFL teachers, and school administrators are discussed. The findings offer valuable insights that inform ongoing discourse on enhancing teacher education programs and devising strategies to mitigate teacher shortages. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3609.html The incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction has led to a closer look at how it affects the experiences and outcomes of learners in this field. This study looks at how psychological flow, AI cognitive-emotion regulation, AI-assisted second language (L2) learning attitudes, and AI self-efficacy are related among 318 university students. By applying Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) via AMOS, the study explains how these variables cooperate in order to make the language learning experiences better. The results suggest that a more favorable attitude toward AI-assisted L2 learning is cultivated as a result of the positive impact of higher levels of AI self-efficacy on cognitive-emotion regulation. Additionally, a robust correlation was observed between these attitudes and the experience of psychological flow, indicating that the integration of AI can substantially improve student engagement and overall learning outcomes. The findings also emphasize the importance of cognitive-emotional processes in influencing students' perspectives on AI tools, demonstrating that emotional modulation strategies can alleviate feelings of apprehension and uncertainty, thereby fostering a more optimistic learning environment. Furthermore, the implications of these discoveries for curriculum development and teaching practices are addressed, offering educators valuable insights on how to effectively utilize AI technology. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3737.html Augmented reality (AR) has emerged as an important pedagogical tool, attracting the attention of educators and researchers over the past decade. Despite this growing interest, its application within technology-enhanced language teaching and learning remains underexplored. The present study investigated the AR literacy of Iranian EFL teachers using a mixed-methods approach. A sample of 300 EFL teachers, randomly selected from Iranian public high schools (n=100), private (non-profit) schools (n=100), and private language institutes (n=100), completed an augmented reality literacy questionnaire. Additionally, a portion of participants from each group (n=30) participated in semi-structured interviews developed by the researchers. A two-way MANOVA analysis indicated that teachers from private language institutes exhibited the highest mean scores across all four AR literacy domains (Computer skills, AR practice, experience, and perception), followed by those from public and private high schools. No significant gender-based differences were observed in teachers’ awareness of AR components. The interview results revealed that Iranian EFL teachers rarely integrate AR into their classroom practices, often equating it narrowly with basic computer skills such as internet use, video playback, and online search. Based on the findings, utilization of AR into EFL context is suggested, as this integration holds potential for language educators and material developers to create more engaging and dynamic learning tasks. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3741.html Discourse markers are linguistic elements that organize written or spoken communication, guiding the flow of ideas. In academic writing, their effective use enhances clarity and coherence, making it a crucial skill for learners. Corrective feedback, both oral and written, is a key strategy for improving writing by addressing errors and guiding learners toward proficiency. This study investigates the impact of oral and written corrective feedback on the use of discourse markers in academic writing among Iranian EFL learners. Seventy learners, aged 19-27, enrolled at Pardis Language Institute in Hamedan, Iran, were initially selected through convenience sampling. To ensure proficiency homogeneity, the Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was administered, and 50 upper-intermediate learners were chosen. These participants, all Persian speakers, were randomly assigned to two experimental groups of 25, with balanced gender representation. A pretest involving three academic writing tasks—a persuasive essay, a comparison essay, and a narrative task—was used to assess discourse marker usage. Over eight sessions, one group received oral corrective feedback, and the other written corrective feedback. A posttest, similar to the pretest, was conducted to evaluate progress. Data were analyzed using a scoring rubric adapted from Hamp-Lyons (1992), with inter-rater reliability calculated to ensure consistency. Results revealed that both forms of feedback significantly enhanced the use of discourse markers, with written feedback yielding more pronounced improvements. These findings highlight the essential role of corrective feedback in advancing EFL learners' writing proficiency, offering practical insights for educators and material developers. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3736.html Teacher agency, defined as educators’ capacity to act purposefully and autonomously, is vital for fostering innovative and effective educational practices. In Iran’s collectivist and hierarchical educational context, teachers navigate a complex interplay of cultural expectations, systemic constraints, and professional aspirations. Using semi-structured interviews for data collection and content analysis through a constant comparative method, this qualitative study explores the lived experiences of 32 English language teachers, to reveal that agency-framed teachers' decisions and acts are deeply influenced by collectivist cultural norms. Teachers shared stories of resilience and resourcefulness, striving to balance respect for authority with their desire to innovate and adapt teaching methods according to students’ needs. The findings revealed that collectivist values, hierarchical social structures, rigid curricula, parental expectations, and economic challenges constrain language teachers’ agency. Results of the current study emphasizes the need for systemic reforms that assist teachers in exerting their agency advocating for educational policies that humanize and empower educators as agents of transformative change in diverse global contexts while honoring cultural values. implications of the findings for language teachers, macro-policy makers, and other stakeholders are discussed in details. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3461.html The present study examined the relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) acceptance and writing self-efficacy among 278 Iranian English university instructors. The quantitative findings indicated a statistically significant positive relationship between AI acceptance and writing self-efficacy (r = 0.42, p < 0.01). The qualitative phase examined the instructors' perceptions and their practices using four main domains from Khalifa and Albadawy's framework (2024). Based on the findings, the interviewees indicated that AI tools had alleviated their writing difficulties in (1) Content Development and structuring, with more experienced instructors utilizing advanced text structuring while novice instructors focused on grammar; (2) Idea Development, where AI warranted research design with assistance particularly in identifying gaps in the literature; and (3) Editing/Publishing support (all users appreciated being able to check for plagiarism, though the more experienced instructors did take advantage of peer revision options); (4) Literature Review and Synthesis, the data showed that instructors evaluated texts differently albeit dependent on experience level. Additionally, it appeared that emotional responses such as enthusiasm or skepticism were also mediating factors that influenced acceptance. Barriers to AI use and acceptance also emerged regarding institutional support and ethical considerations. The data suggest that self-efficacy is influenced positively through prior experience or use, and the self-efficacy gains were more pronounced for more experienced instructors. This reveals how a cycle of adopting technology establishes confidence. The findings suggest that AI benefits are conditional based on experience level, institutional and contextual barriers, emotional factors, and contextual differences providing rich practical insights for training programs. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3742.html Adaptability is an extremely valuable ability in teachers, particularly in schools with rigid curriculum and scarce resources. Even though all agree about its utmost importance, few investigations have been carried out in Iranian EFL teachers' adaptive thinking and behavior. To bridge this gap, we developed the PATS, an instrument that is culturally specific and drew from the Individual Adaptability Theory of Ployhart and Bliese (2006). PATS assesses six key areas: flexibility, creativity, problem-solving, analytical thinking, self-awareness, and self regulation. We collected data from 150 Iranian EFL teachers, recording their age, gender, education level, and years of teaching experience. The final scale consists of 35 items, and its reliability was tested using the Rasch Rating Scale Model. Results demonstrated high reliability, with internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.92) and person separation reliability (0.93). Principal Components Analysis confirmed unidimensionality, with 52.7% of the variance explained and the first contrast’s eigenvalue below 2.0. All items showed good model fit. Person–item maps indicated that item difficulty aligned well with teacher ability levels, confirming the scale's effectiveness in distinguishing levels of adaptability. In general, PATS is a sound and a valid adaptive thinking measure for Iranian EFL instructors. In addition to measurement, it also starts professional growth and awareness; thus, adding adaptability training to teacher preparation courses might have an influence on responsiveness in teaching and motivation in different EFL settings. https://ali.birjand.ac.ir/article_3913.html Metadiscourse has been identified as a valuable rhetorical resource in the process of persuasion. It refers to self-reflective linguistic expressions that guide readers through a text, representing the writer’s interaction with both the evolving discourse and the anticipated audience. Grounded in a view of writing as social engagement, this study investigated the use of metadiscourse markers in opinion articles from two prominent newspapers: Tehran Times (a non-native English publication) and The New York Times (a native English publication). The aim was to identify cross-cultural differences in persuasive writing strategies employed by columnists and freelance writers within the newspaper genre. To this end, a corpus of 200 opinion articles published in 2023 was analyzed using Hyland’s (2005) model of metadiscourse, focusing on the frequency and distribution of interactive and interactional metadiscourse markers. The results indicated that Iranian non-natives used more interactive metadiscourse markers, while natives used more interactional metadiscourse markers. Furthermore, quantitative analysis revealed a statistically significant difference in the overall use of metadiscourse and in the specific use of its two subcategories. The findings highlight distinct rhetorical preferences between native and non-native English writers, suggesting that cultural norms influence persuasive writing styles. These insights have pedagogical implications for language instruction, offering guidance on challenges faced by English language learners in mastering effective discourse strategies.